Focusing of specific examples, describe the way that art and design was a response to the forces of modernity
“Modernity is the transient, the fleeting, the contingent; it is one half of art, the other being the eternal and the immovable”
- (Baudelaire in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p107)
As defined by Baudelaire, modernity’s goal is to create an improved quality of lifestyle. Naturally, art and design responded to this effect. This essay will cover how modernity impacted on the way we approach art and design, how they responded and how it’s influenced art and design today.
This begs the question, ‘What is modernism?’ Malcolm Barnard attempts to shed light on this in his book “ Graphic Design As Communication” in the sixth chapter ‘Modernism’. He discusses the four key features of modernism as defined by Boyne and Rattansi (1990). These features are; aesthetic self-reflexiveness, when an object is made out of itself or the medium draws attention to itself, reflected in the designers work; montage, the putting together or superimposing of unrelated objects to produce something new, where ‘both temporal sequence and representational images may be disrupted’ (Barnard (2005) p116); paradox, ambiguity and uncertainty, alluding to their being no clear, single message or having multiple meanings; loss of the integrated individual subject, a lack of unity, consistency or harmony to the object or the feeling of loosing a sense of self. Elementary to modernism is optimism, believing in progress to improve the future. Barnard uses ‘TINTE’ (1924) by El Lissitzsky (Fig 1) as an example in chapter 6. It embodies aesthetic self- reflection as the aesthetic quality lends itself to the advertised ink product and draws attention to the medium, allowing the audience to ‘see’ the process. There is no montage as it is fluid and consistent in one medium, however, the stencilled typeface for the word ‘TINTE’ appears superimposed and put onto the bottle without consideration of placement. Despite this, it doesn’t create something new so there is no defined element of montage. Paradox, ambiguity and uncertainty haven’t been fulfilled, as the poster’s single message of promoting the product is clear and distinctive. ‘TINTE’ has a feeling of losing it’s sense of self as Lissitzsky has blurred the side of the image, losing it’s physical being towards the end, yet, it’s unity, consistency and meaning within the medium and message presentation doesn’t lose the integrated individual subject. Optimism in progress is prevalent in Lissitzsky’s work and ‘TINTE’ is no exception. Lissitzsky has created a campaign that intends to improve the lives of others by advertising the tools to aid communication amongst the masses, encouraging the development of future communications. Ultimately, this proves that modernist works needn’t have all aspects of these features; they can just have resemblances and still be modernist due to the intention and beliefs behind it. Boyne and Rattansi commented that ‘Modernism is a critique of Modernity ‘ (Boyne & Rattansi in Barnard, M. (2005), p113) reacting to seeing areas of dissatisfactory life, finding ways to improve and highlighting the subjective experience of modernism by individualistic responses by artists and designers.
This design approach was from modernity’s impact on our lives. It saw society develop and accept change, leading to progression into several areas of living. Communications broke barriers between countries, aiding the discovery of new technologies as word of mouth spread the inventions that eased the quality of living. Transport systems encouraged mobility and curiosity of surrounding cultures. The Printing Press contributed to the expansion of mass production. People learnt how to read and write, as publications would spread the word across the Globe. Industrialization saw people leaving the countryside and travel to the city for shift work, leading to a sharp increase into the urbanisation of the city. These drastic changes saw people’s attitudes develop, wanting a glamorous and fast-paced modern lifestyle, compared to the previously laid back and traditional lifestyle. Luxuries, like fine clothing and jewellery, became a status symbol and the introduction of leisure time saw people wanting to be entertained for their pleasure. Charles Baudelaire who, in his ‘The Painter of Modern Life’ (1859-60) recorded these changes ‘He gazes at the landscape of the great city, landscapes of stone now swathed in the mist, now struck in full face by the sun. He enjoys handsome equipages, proud horses, the spit and polish of the grooms, the skilful handling by the page boys, the smooth rhythmic gait of the woman, the beauty of the children, full of the joy of life and proud as peacocks of their pretty clothes; in short, life universal. If in a shift of fashion, the cut of the dress has been slightly modified, if clusters of ribbons and curls have been dethroned by rosettes, of bonnets have widened and chignons have come down a little on the nape of the neck, if waist-lines have been raised and skirts become fuller, you may be sure that from a long way off his eagle’s eye will have detected it’ (Baudelaire in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p105-106). Baudelaire’s observations on displayed status reflect a growing commodity culture. His comments account for changes to architecture and fashion, reinforcing the need for progress and improvement.
Modernity had repercussions into the effect it had on our culture and ways of living thus having a knock on effect on our approach to art and design.
The introduction of the “Form Follows Function” philosophy, introduced by architect Louis Sullivan’s (1896) law formulation is still relevant today. A products purpose is of more importance than the aesthetic appearance of the object. The appearance is determined solely by the products function. Laszlo Moholy-Nagy in his ‘The New Typography’ essay said ‘the new beauty is not a style that matches one object with another aesthetically by using similar external forms (façade, motif, ornament). Today, something is beautiful if its form serves its function’ (Moholy- Nagy in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p303). The prospect of decoration made the design seem insincere and ornamentation was dysfunctional or over-the-top in extravagance. Adolf Loos stated in his 1908 ‘Ornament And Crime’ essay ‘I have discovered the following truth and present it to the world: cultural evolution is equivalent to the removal of ornament from articles in daily use’ (Loos in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p78). Society can’t move forward without realising that decoration is a distraction from what is really important in life. Massimo Vignelli in his ‘Long Live Modernism!’ article (1991) backs this up ‘Modernism’s ascetic, Spartan look still has a towering position of strength and dignity. Modernism’s inherent notion of timeless values as opposed to transient values still greatly appeals to my intellectual being’ (Vignelli in Bierut, M et al, (1994), p 52). From these writings, it highlights that modernism doesn’t look to the past but to the future for inspiration, to be forward thinking and invent new styles.
Le Corbusier features ‘Form Follows Function’ within his architecture. His designs aimed to be progressive and aid the development of society. He noted ‘Once the full story is known, it becomes clear that everything has a time and a place and that nothing of the past is of use to us. For our life on this world is a path on which we can never retrace our steps’ (Le Corbusier in Greenhalgh, P (2005), p113). Stating that you can’t look to the past for inspiration as it has had its time, the only way to move forward and advance is to progress. He approached architecture, as undecorated and undisguised as objectifying his designs would detract from the beauty that was hidden beneath. Beauty came from an object doing what it was built to do and being functional. These beliefs are upheld in “Villa Savoye” (Fig 2.) as an ‘architectural vision was powerfully evolutionist. He saw the cityscape as a tool for the advancement of civilisation’ (Greenhalgh, P. (2005), p223). The reinforced concrete highlights development in technologies, with the pilotis poles holding the structure upright. The white colour emphasizes the lack of decoration providing an aura of simplicity to the domain. With windows as walls and a garden area on the roof, the house is environmentally friendly as it brings in natural light so as not to disturb the surrounding area. With this consideration, Le Corbusier designed a language of design that could be understood on an international basis, described as ‘a rational simplification of architecture’ (Meecham, P & Sheldon, J. (2005), p140).
Next came the birth of the Bauhaus school, which had an influx of designers who were given a modernist education. Walter Groupius, founder of The Bauhaus, printed a ‘Manifesto of the Bauhaus’ in 1919 declaring the intentions of the building ‘the conscious co-operation and collaboration of all craftsmen’ (Groupius in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998) p301). The philosophy was to work together as a unit to produce a better future for the world. In Malcolm Barnard’s “ Graphic Design As Communication” book in the sixth chapter ‘Modernism’, P.B. Meggs said that the Bauhaus was ‘intensely visionary’ and ‘utopian’ in its first five years (Meggs in Barnard, M. (2005), p124). Important ideals included that products were respectful and true to their material or original state. Design that could be universal in understanding and purpose, to aid unity of the global community, was integral. The Bauhaus insisted on “all forms of art and design were to contribute to the improvement of humanity and society” (Barnard, M. (2005), p124).
In Bernard’s ‘Modernism’ chapter, he describes the development of sans serif typography that was produced in the Bauhaus, “the Bauhaus typographers wanted to rationalise the alphabet, to prefect the letter forms and to clarify communications” (Bernard, (2005), p135). In 1925, Moholy-Nagy complained ‘we do not even possess a type-face that is correct in size, is clearly legible and lacking in any individual features and that is based on a functional form of visual appearance without distortions and curlicues’ (Mohony- Nagy in Jobling, P. & Crowley, D (1996), p140). In Bernard’s ‘Modernism’ chapter, he describes the Modernist development of sans serif typography that was produced in the Bauhaus, using Herbert Bayer’s ‘Universal’ (1926) typeface as an example (Fig.3). In 1925, Moholy-Nagy complained ‘we do not even possess a type-face that is correct in size, is clearly legible and lacking in any individual features and that is based on a functional form of visual appearance without distortions and curlicues’ (Mohony- Nagy in Jobling, P. & Crowley, D (1996), p140). A typographic proposal for this was ‘Universal’. It contained solely lower-case letters and no capitals in the typeface. In Bayer’s ‘Towards A Universal Typeface’ 1935 essay, he explains the two areas of reasoning for his design choices, social context and aesthetic development. Bayer accounts the modernist culture as “today we do not build Gothic buildings travelling on horseback or wear crinolines; we construct ‘contemporary buildings’, travel in cars and planes and dress more traditionally” (Bayer in Bernard (2005), p125) thereby demonstrating the context behind the typefaces creation. Due to cultural development, roman typefaces were seen as old-fashioned and out-dated as they were created with chisel and stone, the medium at the time. This gives them the appearance of having a mixture of thick and thin strokes with serifs. Bayer’s aesthetic development of straight lines, geometric circles and constant line thicknesses meant “there was no need for typefaces to retain serifs or thick and thin lines” (Bernard, (2005), p125) as it is more suited to contemporary mechanical reproduction. Socially, the lowercase type was to aid people learning to read and write as it would be “less of a burden” to not read capitals (Bayer in Bernard, (2005), p125). Richard Hollis’ Graphic Design: A Concise History’ book states ‘in restricting ourselves to lower-case letters our type loses nothing, but becomes more easily read, more easily learned, substantially economic’ (Hollis, R. (2001), p54). ‘Universal’ was to be used globally as a way to ‘save labour, time and money and to improve communication’ (Kinross in Bernard, (2005), p126) between people on a worldwide scale. Jeremy Anynsley stated ‘Bayer argued that this saved space and money because printers needed to stock only one range of the typefaces, and also it enhanced international communication’ (Anynsley, J. (2004), p66). As shown by Bernard, Bayer reflected these stresses by adopting a lowercase style to combat them, even though they were never used or “went into production” (Bernard, (2005), p127). Bayer highlighted how “the Bauhaus conceives modernism a as social, or even a socialist, project. It thus shares the ambivalence towards the values of the modern world that was noted above as one of the four key features of modernism and wants to eradicate inefficient communication in the interests of improving the world” (Bernard, (2005), p126) which is reflected in the Bauhaus’ support of ‘Universal’, so much so it was used as the signage for the Bauhaus building (Fig 4.). Despite this, Bayer, in a letter to Jan Tschichold contradicted his typefaces intentions ‘I can only wish that typography be carried out and perceived with less ideology, and instead with rather more graphic sense’ (Bayer in Burke, C (2007), p132). Jobling & Crowley suggest that Bayer had described lowercase letters as ‘phonetically redundant’ (Jobling, P. & Crowley, D. (2006), p141) indicating that Bayer put more thought into the aesthetics, geometric shapes and line thicknesses rather than the fonts use. If comparing ‘Universal’ alongside the modernist features Bernard laid out in chapter six, it holds no single message and therefore no uncertainty, it was not created from unrelated superimposed objects so it has no montage and it has complete unity therefore having no loss of the integrated individual subject. Bernard states ‘There is little sense of Bayer’s typefaces, for example, self reflexively drawing attention to the constructed nature of the typefaces” (Bernard, (2005), p134) demonstrating the lack of aesthetic self-reflexivity. From this, it leaves optimism, which ‘Universal’ fully satisfies based on Bayer’s want to use ‘Universal’ to progress communication for the future. In chapter six, Bernard concludes that modernist typography “are undecorated, economical, easy to read and therefore in harmony with modern times. Sans serif faces are also modernist in the terms progressive and liberal” and are “opposed nationalism and exclusivity” based on their global connectivity yet he also argues “neither Tschichold nor Bayer is modernist in the sense that modernism places a high value on the use of ambiguity and ambivalence: these qualities are precisely what the Bauhaus’s graphic design… were intended to avoid” (Bernard, (2005), p127-128). This goes back to the fact that even though something doesn’t have all modernist qualities, it can have “family resemblances” (Wittgenstein in Bernard (2005), p134), which still makes it modernist, as demonstrated with ‘Universal’.
Bayer, alongside Jan Tschichold, went on to influence the design collective called the ‘International Typographic Style’. Developing a quintessential modernist style, they followed strict rules about the aesthetic that they desired, finding a way to develop a sense of internationalism. The use of a rigid grid structure, aligned to be flush left and ragged right, with the use of chosen Modernist typeface, Aksidenz Grotesk, became their signature visual presentation. Their approach to design was to have a logical layout with minimal colour, stripped of all decoration. The most recognised design by International Typographic Style was the publication of ‘Neue Grafik’ Journal (Fig 5). This journal was to coincide with the development of communication, allowing Europe to spread its ideology to a larger audience, providing a ‘an international platform for the discussion of modern graphic and applied art’ according to Jeremy Anysley (Aynsley, J. (2004), p 123). ‘Neue Grafik’ was printed in the main three languages at the time, English, German and French, expanding the readership just by catering for the global audience. There was no decoration in the layout presentation and the typeface was sans serif to co-ordinate with the lack of ornamentation. The information within the publication was direct and to the point, kept in rigid columns so as to inform the reader of the magazine’s contents, described as ‘its own design constantly epitomizing its outlook’ (Aynsley, J. (2004), p122). Bayer’s influence can be seen in the choice of using a system ‘which included the use of simple type forms because they were universal, clear and impersonal’ as well as how “each of them is serving international and ‘universal’ communication in a way that is quite in keeping with the progressive and socially improving values of modernism” (Bernard, (2005), p128) which reflect the reasoning behind his development of the ‘Universal’ typeface and upholds his beliefs behind his designs.
Art and design reflects the world around us, acting as documentation to record the development of society and how we have changed. It contributed to the modernism movement itself that further progressed and accelerated the change in culture. Art and design responded by aiding the development of emerging experimentation and technologies, pushing the boundaries and attempting to connect the world community, steering mass culture towards the principles of rationalism and functionality. Massimo Vignelli stated that ‘Modernism was and still is the search for truth, the search for integrity, the search for cultural stimulation and enrichment of the mind. Modernism was never a style but an attitude… from the beginning, Modernism had the urgency of utopianism: to make as world better by design.’ (Vignelli in Bierut, M et al, (1994), p 51) Others opposed this, even Adolf Hitler in his ‘Great Exhibition of Modern Art’ inaugurating speech ‘it is the expression of a certain vintage which is characterised today by the word ‘modern’, and thus, of course, will be un-modern tomorrow, since it will be out-dated’ (Hitler in Kolocotroni, V. et al (2005), p561). Art and design responded to the forces of modernity, working to achieve a global method of communicative understanding which we are still feeling the repercussions of today. Robert Hughes commented ‘The modernist achievement will continue to affect culture for decades to come, because it was so large, so imposing, and so irrefutably convincing’ (Hughes, R in Bocola, S. (1999), p569). Even though modernism developed as an era between the late 19th and early 20th century, we have kept the integral ideals and upheld the beliefs that were brand new centuries ago. As Vignelli demanded, ‘Long Live the Modern movement!’ (Vignelli in Bierut, M et al, (1994), p52).
Word Count: 3,040
Bibliography:
1. Aynsley, J (2004) ‘Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design: A Complete History’ 2nd ed., London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd –p66, p122-123
2. Barnard, M (2005) ‘Graphic Design As Communication’ 1st ed., Oxon: Routledge –p112-113, p114, p116, p124, p125, p126, p127, 128, p134, p135
3. Bierut, M. Drenttel, W. Heller, S. & Holland, D. K. (1994) ‘Looking Closer- Critical Writings on Graphic Design’ Allworth Press- p51-52
4. Bocola, S (1999) ‘The Art Of Modernism: Art, Culture and Society from Goya to the Present Day’ 1st ed., Munich: Prestel Verlag- p569
5. Burke, C. (2007) ‘Active Literature: Jan Tschichold and New Typography’, 1 ed., London: Hyphen Press- p132
6. Greenhalgh, P. (2005) ‘The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to Post-Modernism’ 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p113, p223
7. Hollis, R. (2001) ‘Graphic Design: A Concise History’ 2nd ed., London: Thames & Hudson- p54
8. Kolocotroni, V. Goldman, J. & Taxidou, O. (1998) ‘Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents’ 1st ed., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press- p77, p105-p107, p301, p303, p561
9. Jobling, P. & Crowley, D. (1996) ‘Graphic Design: Reproduction & Representation Since 1800’ 1 ed., Manchester: Manchester University Press- p140, p141
10. Meecham, P. & Sheldon, J. (2005) ‘Modern Art: A Critical Introduction’ 2nd ed., Oxon: Routledge- p140
Image Sources:
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(Fig 1.) ‘TINTE’ (1924) by El Lissitzsky
Barnard, M (2005) ‘Graphic Design As Communication’ 1st ed., Oxon: Routledge –p116
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(Fig 2.) “Villa Savoye” (1928) by Le Corbusier
Greenhalgh, P. (2005) “ The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to Post-Modernism” 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p225
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(Fig 3.) “Universe” (1926) by Herbert Bayer
Aynsley, J (2004) “Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design: A Complete History” 2nd ed., London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd –p62
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(Fig 4.) “The Bauhaus” (1925) by Walter Groupius
Greenhalgh, P. (2005) “ The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to Post-Modernism” 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p167
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(Fig 5.)"Neue Grafik Magazine" (1958- 1965) by LMNV
Magazine Archive (2011) "Neue Grafik Magazine" [Internet] Available from http://magazinearchive.co/portfolio/neue-grafik-magazine (Accessed 23rd October 2012)
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