Focusing of Specific examples, describe
the way that Art and Design was a response to the Forces of Modernity
“Modernity is the transient, the fleeting,
the contingent; it is one half of art, the other being the eternal and the
immovable”
- (Baudelaire
in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p107)
As defined by Baudelaire, the goal
of Modernity is to create an improved quality of lifestyle. Art and Design
began the natural reaction of responding to this effect. This essay will cover
specific aspects of how the forces of Modernity impacted on the way we approach
Art and Design, how Art and Design responded and how it’s influenced Art and
Design today.
This begs the question, ‘What is
Modernism?’ Modernism is difficult to define yet Malcolm Barnard attempts to shed
light on this in his book “ Graphic Design As Communication” in the sixth
chapter ‘Modernism’. He discusses the 4 key features of Modernism works that
were defined by Boyne and Rattansi (1990).
These features are; Aesthetic Self-Reflexiveness, which is when an
object is made out of itself or the medium draws attention to itself which is
thus reflected in the work by the designer; Montage, which is the putting
together or superimposing of unrelated objects to produce something new, where
‘both temporal sequence and representational images may be disrupted’ (Barnard
(2005) p116); Paradox, Ambiguity and Uncertainty which alludes to the ideal of
their being no clear, single message or the essence of having multiple
meanings; Loss of the Integrated Individual Subject which gives a lack of
unity, consistency or harmony to the object or the feeling of loosing a sense
of self. Another aspect that is elementary to Modernism is Optimism in the
belief in Progress as it has conviction in its approach to, ultimately, improve
the future that we will end up having. An example used within Chapter 6 by
Barnard to show aspects of these Modernist elements is ‘TINTE’ (1924) by El
Lissitzsky (Fig 1). It embodies the reference to Aesthetic Self- Reflection
based on the aesthetic quality of the poster lending itself to the ink product
that it is showcasing. This draws attention to the medium, which advertises the
product effectively, particularly as the process that was used to create the
poster can be ‘seen’ by the audience. Predominantly, there is no element of
Montage in this image as it is fluid and consistent using one medium, however,
the stencilled typeface used for the word ‘TINTE’ seems like it has been
superimposed and put onto the bottle without consideration of placement.
Despite this, it doesn’t create something new so there is no defined element of
Montage. The area of Paradox, Ambiguity and Uncertainty hasn’t been fulfilled
as the poster has a single message of promoting the product, which is clear and
distinctive. In a sense, ‘TINTE’ has a feeling of loosing it’s sense of self as
Lissitzsky has blurred the side of the image, meaning it looses it’s physical
being towards the end, yet, it holds it’s unity, consistency ands meaning
within the medium and message presentation thereby not having lost the
Integrated Individual Subject. Finally, optimism in progress is prevalent in
Lissitzsky’s work and ‘TINTE’ is no exception. Lissitzsky has created a
campaign that intends to improve the lives of others by advertising the tools
to aid communication amongst the masses, therefore encouraging the development
of communications in the future. Ultimately, what this proves is that It isn’t
necessary for a piece of Modernism to have all aspects of these features; they
can just have resemblances and still be Modernist due to the intention and
beliefs behind it. Boyne and Rattansi commented that ‘Modernism is a critique
of Modernity ‘ (Boyne & Rattansi in Barnard, M. (2005), p113) in reacting
to seeing areas of dissatisfactory life, finding ways of making improvements to
it and highlighting the subjective experience of Modernism by individualistic
responses by Artists and Designers.
This approach to design was from
the impact that Modernity had on our lives. It saw a development in the way
society accepted change, leading to progression into several areas of living.
Communications broke barriers between countries as people became inquisitive to
the surrounding cultures. Introducing rapid transport systems began to
encourage people’s mobility. This new ability to communicate amongst countries
soon aided the discovery of new technologies as word of mouth spread the
inventions that came to ease the quality of living. One of these new
technologies, The Printing Press, contributed to the expansion of mass
production. People learnt how to read and write, reinforcing the necessity of
communication as publications would spread the word across the Globe.
Industrialization saw people beginning to leave the countryside and travel to
the city for shift work. This led to people moving homes and a sharp increase
into the urbanisation of the city. All of these drastic changes saw a
development into the attitudes of people, who want a piece of the glamour and
fast-paced modern lifestyle experience, compared to their previously laid back
and traditional lifestyle choices. These
changes came in the shape of luxuries, like fine clothing and jewellery,
becoming a status symbol and the introduction of leisure time as people wanted
to be entertained for their pleasure out of work hours. These integral changes
to the society at the time were recorded by Charles Baudelaire who, in his ‘The
Painter of Modern Life’ (1859-60) wrote ‘He gazes at the landscape of the great
city, landscapes of stone now swathed in the mist, now struck in full face by
the sun. He enjoys handsome equipages, proud horses, the spit and polish of the
grooms, the skilful handling by the page boys, the smooth rhythmic gait of the
woman, the beauty of the children, full of the joy of life and proud as
peacocks of their pretty clothes; in short, life universal. If in a shift of
fashion, the cut of the dress has been slightly modified, if clusters of
ribbons and curls have been dethroned by rosettes, of bonnets have widened and
chignons have come down a little on the nape of the neck, if waist-lines have
been raised and skirts become fuller, you may be sure that from a long way off
his eagle’s eye will have detected it’ (Baudelaire in Kolocotroni, V. et al,
(1998), p105-106). Baudelaire’s comments emphasize the commodity culture that has
developed from the growing need to display their status. His observations give
a detailed account on how the time changed in regards to architecture and
fashion, reinforcing the need they felt to progress and improve.
These forces of Modernity had
repercussions into the effect it had on our culture and way of living. This had
a knock on effect on our approach to Art and Design.
An area of specific importance was
the introduction of the “Form Follows Function” philosophy, introduced by
Architect Louis Sullivan’s (1896) law formulation, which is still relevant to
our approach to design even today. This is the concept that a products purpose
is of more importance than the aesthetic appearance to the object. The appearance
is determined solely by the products function. This is described by Laszlo
Moholy-Nagy in his ‘The New Typography’ essay as ‘the new beauty is not a style
that matches one object with another aesthetically by using similar external
forms (façade, motif, ornament). Today, something is beautiful if its form
serves its function’ (Moholy- Nagy in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p303). The prospect of having any decoration
made the design appear insincere. Additional ornamentation gave the impression
of the design being dysfunctional or over-the-top in its decadent extravagance.
Adolf Loos started in his 1908 ‘Ornament And Crime’ essay that ‘I have
discovered the following truth and present it to the world: cultural evolution
is equivalent to the removal of ornament from articles in daily use’ (Loos in
Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998), p78). He is emphasizing that society couldn’t
move forward without first having realised that decoration gives nothing to
them but a distraction from what is really important in life. Massimo Vignelli
in his ‘Long Live Modernism!’ article (1991) backs up this ideal which says
‘Modernism’s ascetic, Spartan look still has a towering position of strength
and dignity. Modernism’s inherent notion of timeless values as opposed to
transient values still greatly appeals to my intellectual being’ (Vignelli in
Bierut, M et al, (1994), p 52). Expressing the importance of the lack of
ornamentation as it gives a timeless appearance to a piece of design, which
will never seem out-dated due to this style choice. From these writings, it
highlights that the philosophy aesthetically makes for a classic, dynamic piece
of design, as Modernism doesn’t look to the past but to the future. This is to
be forward thinking and invent new styles. The ‘Enlightenment Project’ who
began to turn away from the religious teachings of the time, focusing their
findings on using their own rationality and reason, took this on board. This
secularisation meant that usefulness was the key priority of the group.
An example of the ‘Form Follows
Function’ belief is within the architecture and furniture of designer Le
Corbusier. He produced designs that aimed to be progressive and aid the
development of society, noted in this quote on the topic of museums, ‘Once the
full story is known, it becomes clear that everything has a time and a place
and that nothing of the past is of use to us. For our life on this world is a
path on which we can never retrace our steps’ (Le Corbusier in Greenhalgh, P
(2005), p113). He is stating that you can’t look to the past for inspiration
and room to develop as it has had its time. The only way to move forward and
advance is to progress. He approached
architecture with the impression that it had to be undecorated and undisguised.
He felt that objectifying his designs would detract from the beauty that was
hidden beneath. He felt that beauty came from an object doing what it was built
to do and being functional. These beliefs can be clearly seen in his architecture,
such as “Villa Savoye” (Fig 2.) which Greenhalgh highlights that Le Corbusier’s
‘architectural vision was powerfully evolutionist. He saw the cityscape as a
tool for the advancement of civilisation’ (Greenhalgh, P. (2005), p223). The reinforced
concrete media reinforces the development in technologies and materials, with
the pilotis poles holding the structure upright. The choice of white
surrounding the house emphasizes the lack of decoration as the white provides
an aura of simplicity to the domain. The
house is designed with windows as walls and a garden area on the roof which
gives the additional function of the house being environmentally friendly as it
brings in natural light so as not to disturb the surrounding area. With these
factors taken into consideration, Le Corbusier designed a language of design
that could be understood on an international basis. Meecham and Sheldon describing
the style as ‘a rational simplification of architecture’ (Meecham, P &
Sheldon, J. (2005), p140).
A large amount of the responses
made by Art and Design world were heavily influenced by the birth of The
Bauhaus School and the influx of designers who were given a Modernist education
there. Walter Groupius, founder of The Bauhaus, printed a ‘Manifesto of the
Bauhaus’ in 1919 where the intentions of the building were brought to light,
such as ‘the conscious co-operation and collaboration of all craftsmen’
(Groupius in Kolocotroni, V. et al, (1998) p301). This highlights the
philosophy of working together as a unit to produce a better future for the
world. P.B. Meggs said that during the first 5 years of the Bauhaus’ existence,
the Bauhaus was ‘intensely visionary’ and ‘utopian’ (Meggs in Barnard, M.
(2005), p124). There were several ideals that
were held at the Bauhaus which influenced the way that students produced work.
It was important that products were respectful and true to their material or
original state. The importance of producing design that could be universal in
it’s understanding and purpose, to aid unity of the global community, was integral.
There are plenty of examples of Modernist work that was produced in The
Bauhaus, predominately the development of sans serif typography.
In 1925, Moholy-Nagy complained
that ‘we do not even possess a type-face that is correct in size, is clearly
legible and lacking in any individual features and that is based on a
functional form of visual appearance without distortions and curlicues’ (Mohony-
Nagy in Jobling, P. & Crowley, D (1996), p140). The development of the
‘Universal’ (1926) Typeface by Herbert Bayer (Fig 3.) was based on the social
element of introducing a typeface with no Capital letters. The lowercase type
was to aid educating people to learning to read and write, as explained by
Richard Hollis’ Graphic Design: A Concise History’ book which stated that ‘in
restricting ourselves to lower-case letters our type loses nothing, but becomes
more easily read, more easily learned, substantially economic’ (Hollis, R.
(2001), p54). He intended on providing a lower-case
only typeface, which would save time and money by improving the communication
between people. This is supported by Jeremy Anynsley who stated that ‘Bayer
argued that this saved space and money because printers needed to stock only
one range of the typefaces, and also it enhanced international communication’ (Anynsley,
J. (2004), p66). It was also stressed that, due
to the development of our culture, it was seen that the Roman typefaces were
out-dated as they had been made by the media at the time, chisels on stone, so
they were not representative of the smaller and sleeker medium at the time, pen
and paper as well as the development of machines. In his ‘Towards A Universal
Typeface’ (1935) Essay, Bayer described the changes that had happened in our culture,
implying that the typefaces of today should represent the style of the times.
The development of this font was supported by the Bauhaus as it was used as the
signage for the Bauhaus building. (Fig 4.) However, this ideal is contradicted
by Bayer himself in a letter to Jan Tschichold where he said ‘I can only wish
that typography be carried out and perceived with less ideology, and instead with
rather more graphic sense’ (Bayer in Burke, C (2007), p132). This indicates
that Bayer put more thought and intention into the aesthetics, geometric shapes
and line thicknesses of the font rather than the fonts use. This is supported
by Jobling & Crowley suggesting that Bayer had described lowercase letters
as ‘phonetically redundant’ (Jobling, P. & Crowley, D. (2006), p141).
This influence went on to develop the
design collective called the ‘International Typographic Style’. This group developed a quintessential
modernist style, following strict rules about the aesthetic that they desired,
to fit in with their beliefs of finding a way to develop a sense of
Internationalism. The use of a rigid grid structure, aligned to be flush left
and ragged right with the use of the chosen Modernist typeface, Aksidenz
Grotesk was their signature presentation. Their approach to design was to have
a logical layout with minimal colour, stripped of all decoration. The most
recognised design by International Typographic Style was the publication of
‘Neue Grafik’ Journal (Fig 5). This journal was developed to coincide with the
development of communication, allowing Europe to spread its ideology to a
larger audience, providing a ‘an international platform for the discussion of
modern graphic and applied art’ according to Jeremy Anysley (Aynsley, J.
(2004), p 123). ‘Neue Grafik’ was Modernist as it was printed in the main three
languages at the time, English, German and French, therefore expanding the
readership just by catering for the global audience. There was no decoration in the layout
presentation and the typeface was sans serif to co-ordinate with the lack of
ornamentation. The information within the publication was direct and to the
point, kept in rigid columns so as to inform the reader of the magazine’s
contents, described by Aynsley as ‘its own design constantly epitomizing its
outlook’ (Aynsley, J. (2004), p122).
These responses, made by the
reaction to Modernity at the time, have paved the way that we produce Art and
Design today. Designers and collectives,
such as Experimental Jetset (Fig 6.), use minimalist decoration with a
monochromatic colour palette and grid format to layout all the necessary
information of their designs. Modernist design is reinforced by the strong use
of the sans serif font, particularly with the increase in popularity gained
from the recent global adoption of the typeface ‘Helvetica’ (Fig 7), arguably
the quintessential modernist font, which, according to Simon Garfield ‘began to
colonise the world’ (Garfield, S. (2011), p134), now used to brand countless
companies. Also, we now belong in a world
that’s constantly updating and advancing with technologies and inventions. This
means that we have now accommodated for Modernist design in the digital age. As
described by Milton Glazer, ‘Modernism is about progress, the endless frontier
and ceaseless development’; it’s ‘origins are in the idea of good coming from
boundless technology’ (Glazer in Barnard, M (2005), p114). The technological
designs of the company, Apple, highlight this with the birth of the iPod (Fig 8)
reinventing the want for simplicity and sleek aesthetics combined with
functional purpose. This has become extremely popular within the mainstream
mass audience.
Overall, Art and Design reflects
the world around us, acting as a method of documentation to record the
development of our society and how we have changed. Whether directly or
indirectly, it contributed to the Modernism movement itself, creating a style
that further progressed and accelerated the change in culture. Art and Design
responded by aiding the development of emerging experimentation and
technologies, pushing the boundaries and attempting to connect the world
community, steering mass culture towards the principles of rationalism and
functionality. Massimo Vignelli stated that ‘Modernism was and still is the
search for truth, the search for integrity, the search for cultural stimulation
and enrichment of the mind. Modernism was never a style but an attitude… from
the beginning, Modernism had the urgency of utopianism: to make as world better
by design.’ (Vignelli in Bierut, M et al, (1994), p 51) This was opposed by
others, even Adolf Hitler who stated in his ‘Great Exhibition of Modern Art’
inaugurating speech that ‘it is the expression of a certain vintage which is
characterised today by the word ‘modern’, and thus, of course, will be
un-modern tomorrow, since it will be out-dated’ (Hitler in Kolocotroni, V. et
al (2005), p561). Art and Design responded to
the forces of Modernity, working to achieve a global method of communicative
understanding and, to a degree; we are still feeling the repercussions of this because
this is something we still strive for in today’s world. Robert Hughes commented
that ‘The modernist achievement will continue to affect culture for decades to
come, because it was so large, so imposing, and so irrefutably convincing’ (Hughes,
R in Bocola, S. (1999), p569). The previous paragraphs evidences examples of contemporary
Modernism, proving that, even though Modernism developed as an era between the
late 19th and early 20th century, we have kept the
integral ideals and upheld the beliefs that were brand new centuries ago. As
Vignelli demanded, ‘Long Live the Modern movement!’ (Vignelli in Bierut, M et
al, (1994), p52).
Bibliography:
1.
Aynsley, J (2004) ‘Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design: A
Complete History’ 2nd ed., London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd
–p66, p122-123
2.
Barnard, M (2005) ‘Graphic Design As Communication’ 1st
ed., Oxon: Routledge –p112-113, p114, p116, p124-128
3.
Bierut, M. Drenttel,
W. Heller, S. & Holland, D. K. (1994) ‘Looking Closer- Critical Writings on
Graphic Design’ Allworth Press- p51-52
4.
Bocola, S (1999) ‘The Art Of Modernism: Art, Culture and
Society from Goya to the Present Day’ 1st ed., Munich: Prestel
Verlag- p569
5.
Burke, C. (2007) ‘Active Literature: Jan Tschichold and New
Typography’, 1 ed., London: Hyphen Press- p132
6.
Garfield, S. (2011) ‘Just My Type’ 2nd ed.,
London: Profile Books- p134
7.
Greenhalgh, P. (2005) ‘The Modern Ideal: The Rise and
Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to
Post-Modernism’ 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p113, p223
8.
Hollis, R. (2001) ‘Graphic Design: A Concise History’ 2nd
ed., London: Thames & Hudson- p54
9.
Kolocotroni, V. Goldman, J. & Taxidou, O. (1998)
‘Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents’ 1st ed., Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press- p77, p105-p107, p301, p303, p561
10.
Jobling, P. & Crowley, D. (1996) ‘Graphic Design:
Reproduction & Representation Since 1800’ 1 ed., Manchester: Manchester
University Press- p140, p141
11.
Meecham, P. & Sheldon, J. (2005) ‘Modern Art: A Critical
Introduction’ 2nd ed., Oxon: Routledge- p140
Image Sources:
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(Fig 1.) ‘TINTE’ (1924) by El Lissitzsky
Barnard, M (2005) ‘Graphic Design As Communication’ 1st ed., Oxon: Routledge –p116
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(Fig 2.) “Villa Savoye” (1928) by Le Corbusier
Greenhalgh, P. (2005) “ The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to Post-Modernism” 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p225
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(Fig 3.) “Universe” (1926) by Herbert Bayer
Aynsley, J (2004) “Pioneers of Modern Graphic Design: A Complete History” 2nd ed., London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd –p62
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(Fig 4.) “The Bauhaus” (1925) by Walter Groupius
Greenhalgh, P. (2005) “ The Modern Ideal: The Rise and Collapse of Idealism in the Visual Arts- From the Enlightenment to Post-Modernism” 1st ed., London: V & A Publications- p167
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(Fig 5.)"Neue Grafik Magazine" (1958- 1965) by LMNV Magazine Archive (2011)
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(Fig 6.) “Helvetica” (2006) by Experimental Jetset
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(Fig 7.) “Helvetica” (1960) by Eduard Hoffman & Max Miedinger
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(Fig 8.) “iPod Nano” (2003) by Apple
eweek. (2003) “Apple ipod nano, iTunes phone” [Internet] 28th May Available from http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Apple/Apple-iPod-nano-iTunes-phone/6/ (Accessed 18th January 2013)
Feedback from Richard:
Essay Feedback from Richard within a Feedback Tutorial
After handing in my first copy of my essay, I was given some informative feedback which would go on to help structure my essay when I would improve it. I have to proof read my essay as it had grammatical errors within it. I have to do this by going through my essay and condensing it at the same time to shorten my sentences so it is more concise. My essay has a strange structure so I am to extend the points I have made on Bernard's chapter as these points are more what he is after in regards to style and analysis. I need to pick another example to talk about in more detail and analyse it in the same way as I have done for Bernard. I am determined to follow all of these points and improve on every one of them so that I can improve my essay to a greater extent so it is more academic
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